The AIDS Epidemic

Ever since the initial description of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1(HIV-1) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2(HIV-2) in the early 1980s, these two viruses have been repeatedly confirmed to be the causative agents behind Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS).HIV-1 is the most predominant cause of AIDS in the world today and developing countries in Asia, South America and Sub-Saharan Africa bear the brunt of the AIDS epidemic (Hoffman et al 2007).  AIDS is a condition that is caused by immune system deficiency. It is a syndrome since it encompasses a pattern characterized by different symptoms presenting with varied manifestations. As an acquired condition or disease, infection is transmitted from person to person via specific transmission routes.These modes of transmission sets it apart from the numerous immune system diseases which are mainly genetic related or caused by anti-cancer as well as immune suppressing therapies.The first instances of AIDS infection can be traced to between 1979-1980 where HIV infections presented as a new disease that had never existed in medical practice or terminology (Chandramouli & Hubley 1995).AIDS among African AmericansIn 1981, Los Angeles doctors noticed a new disease. They were baffled that young men who were apparently healthy began developing pneumonia like disease caused by a microorganism that had never been detected before.It was strange because it was known that pneumocystis only caused disease among those with a compromised immune system. In New York, doctors began recording a new disease among young men. They identified the disease as being Kaposi's sarcoma because it damaged the immune system.One strange fact was that all the men infected were homosexuals, many of whom had contracted other sexually transmission infections like syphilis and gonorrhea. They reached a conclusion that the new disease must also be sexually transmitted (Chandramouli & Hubley 1995).The same symptoms were also found to be p revalent among the intravenous drug users and hemophiliacs. Since many of the drug users shared needles, researchers concluded that the disease was also transmitted through body fluids like blood.Since AIDS was mainly concentrated among gays and drug users who were mainly blacks a misconception arose due to the inherent discrimination and the disease was not tackled as it should have been.The result was a rapid spread of AIDS among the black community. The underlying socioeconomic and political factors helped to further fuel the AIDS epidemic among African Americans.Currently, African Americans are still disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS. While blacks constitute only 13% of the entire US populace, 49% of AIDS cases are found among blacks. It has also been established that AIDS is the leading cause of mortality among Black women in the age bracket 24-34.Among men in the age group 33-44, AIDS is the second leading cause of death (http://www.hhs.gov/). Among African Americans, st atistics show that more than 36% of all AIDS cases are attributable to homosexual/bisexual activity and approximately 38% are attributable to intravenous drug injections.Infections due to heterosexual contact account for approximately 12% of infections. This puts black Americans at a much higher risk of contracting HIV/AIDS, mainly due to same-sex sexual behavior, than other racial categories like Hispanics and Whites.The magnitude of the AIDS scourge among Black Americans is also due to a history of discrimination and neglect in instituting measures aimed at promoting a deviance from bisexual activity and other measures of prevention among the black community.The misperception that AIDS was only concentrated among blacks buttressed with the risk factors has served to worsen the AIDS scenario to this day (Levine et al 1997).The Origin of AIDSEver since the AIDS epidemic became a reality, several theories and evidences have been put forward to try and explain the origins of the AIDS epidemic. Just like any controversy, various fronts of argument have made it almost impossible to clearly confirm the exact origin of the virus.However, there is evidence that the retrovirus incriminated in causing AIDS has been in the environment even before AIDS as a disease became its worldwide spread.The current debates on the origins of the AIDS epidemic is not limited to the biological factors but has also been complicated by various political, social and economic theories that not only attempt to provide an explanation on the nature of the spread; as in among African Americans, but also provide scientific evidence to the extent that the virus was a product of genetic engineering.Initially, as the virus spread among the African American community, the disease and its etiologic agent remained largely unknown to the medical community. It has also not been resolved whether the virus originated from American soil or from African soil.The first pandemic is believed to have its orig in in America but the second epidemic causes by the HIV-2 have its center in West Africa. At the same time it is also believed that HIV-1 began to spread via three distinct routes; two routes have been traced to North America, while third route has been traced to Central Africa. It is uncertain whether the American and the African routes possess any relation whatsoever.The origin of the AIDS virus is attributed to an assertion made at a Congressional Hearing in 1969. It was predicted that the US military was in the process of developing a super germ for its use in the biowarfare program. The development of the new germ was to be made possible by the advancement in genetic engineering.The super germ would also have the capacity to wipe out massive human populations. Its mode of transmission would make ineffective any human intervention ton prevent its spread. The Department of Defense spokesperson is on record for having said that, â€Å"Within the next five to ten years, it would b e possible to produce a new infective microorganism which could differ in certain important respects from any known disease causing organisms.Most important of these is that it might be refractory to the immunological and therapeutic processes upon which we depend to maintain our relative freedom from infectious disease†(Testimony given before the Sub-Committee of the House Committee on Appropriations, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1970, Washington, 1969) (Cantwell 1992, p 137).This initial assertion was later on buttressed by J. Clemmesen; a Copenhagen epidemiologist in 1973 when lecturing cancer researchers. He presented a visualization of a situation in which a virus could naturally or be scientifically being induced to mutate to produce a very contagious variant capable of causing an epidemic and thwarting any chances of vaccination.A decade after the Congressional hearing, the predictions seemed to have become a reality with the coming of the AIDS epidemic spre ading throughout the world despite interventions to prevent its spread.By 1985, four years after the first case of AIDS had been reported by doctors in excess of 130 countries had confirmed AIDS within their borders. This position of the origin conclusively shows that AIDS originated from the military laboratories (Cantwell 1992).

Problems of Working Students Essay

1.1BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY The financial burden of education fees are rising. Due to the increasing price of tuition fees, school fees and other education finances, families tend to face financial crisis particularly on managing the budget of the family basing on their family income. These include the budget for food, education, electricity bills, and other financial bills. The family is unable manage it all since their income is incapable of affording those bills especially the valuable price of education finances. Considering those facts, students affected by the crisis experienced by their family, students will be necessitated to work while studying; it’s either a part-time or a full-time working student. Student jobs have become sort of a trend among students around the world  primarily college students whereas college tuitions and finances are more high-priced and costly than high school learners. In short, the term that suits this trend is ‘Earn and Learn’ policy. Another factor is students who have no relatives or family who aspire to fulfil studies prefer to be a working student unless they’re students who comprise scholarship. Every student has their own aspirations in life, and that is the reason why some students are now working by virtue of aiming those aspirations. Students of Palawan State University also have their own aspirations. Now that the number of working students on Palawan State University is rising, working students will be queried regarding the questions that answer the problems that working students experience. A study done by Jonathan M. Orszag, Peter R. Orszag, and Diane M. Whitmore entitled â€Å"Learning and Earning: Working in College† states that since 1984, the fraction of college students aged 16 to 24 who also work full- or part-time has increased from 49 to 57 percent. Not only are students more likely to work today, but they are more likely to work full-time: the share of students working full-time while going to school full-time has nearly doubled, rising from 5.6 percent in 1985 to 10.4 percent in 2000. In 2000, 828,000 full-time students worked full-time, compared to 366,000 in 1985. The researchers stated the difference between a part-time and full-time working students, including the implications and factors that my affect their academical performance. They somehow concluded that being a full-time working student has more negative effects due to the lack of time. The researchers declared that the population of full-time college students has risen sharply over the past 15 years. The number of working students is increasing continuously and several problems experienced by those students have risen. As the main purpose of this study, this paper aims to determine the problems that exist on working students, the factors that affect their academical performance and the advantage and disadvantages of being a working student. 1.2STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS This study was conducted to determine the problems that working students of Palawan State University during the school year 2012-2013 are encountering. 1.)What are the profiles of the respondents? 2.)What are the reasons why students at Palawan State University are oblige to work while studying? 3.)What are the work-related problems of the respondents? 4.)What are the advantages and disadvantages of students engaging in work while in school? 5.)What are the aspirations in life of the respondents? 1.3SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This research can be a source of information about students who are working and studying simultaneously. This study is beneficial to students who will be engaging in work while studying, for them to be aware of the situations and problems they will be encountering. By knowing these factors students who prefer to work and study simultaneously will be responsive and ready for the situation he/she entering. Further significance is the non working students and faculty members will be able to understand the situation of the working students and help them to cope up with their studies. This study has significant implications to provide an idea to people on solving the problems encountered by working students. This study may be a source for further research regarding the problems of working students. 1.4 SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The study focused on the problems encountered by working students of Palawan State University. The study also encompasses the reason of students of Palawan State University to work and study simultaneously, the advantage and disadvantages of being a working student, and their aspirations in life to pursue working even if it causes problems to them. The main location of the study will be the Palawan State University and the most target respondents would be the working students specifically the college students, but possibly, the researcher will also request other students or also school administrator and faculty members to gather some information and will use other resources to be able for this research to become possible and effective. CHAPTER 2: THEORETRICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Foreign literatures Angela Walkup published an article entitled â€Å"The Down-and-Dirty-Life of Working Students†. Angela Walkup was a grand prix dressage driver. She explained how she learned the ropes as a working student. It is stated on her article that being a working student is hard but that is the real situation of a working student, it is a rough path. It is embodied there what a working student should be because a working student is constantly being watched and evaluated. If a working student is seen as a hard worker and a quick leaner then it will lead him/her to more responsible duties. She testified that experiences from being a working student are good and bad but it will be helpful for your future. Janet McGreevy (2002) published her own article about working students with a title of â€Å"Working Students Face Tough Challenges†. It is declared that the degree belief in the fundamental need for a college degree cuts across all sectors of American society. She proclaimed that college life is visualized as days of intense study coupled with â€Å"getting to know yourself† through campus involvement, the last hurrah of a carefree life prior too joining the real world of work after graduation. The affordability factor of today’s college education has eroded that image and many students find that they must make some tough financial choices by getting into school, and then to be able to stay in school through graduation. Working students encounter debt containment strategies by going to a less expensive college, taking fewer classes during the given semester, or opting to work instead of participating in civic activities or unpaid internships and research  opportunities. Tina Tuttle with Jeff McKinney and Melanie Rago published a literature with a title of â€Å"A Review of Research Related Literature on College Students and Work†. It was articulated that college students today face dilemmas about whether to attend college, where to attend, how to pay, how much to work, how many jobs to take, how to pay credit card bills, and car payments, how to juggle family and children, and how to balance these competing priorities while in school. It was elucidated that the amount of time students spend working has been of increasing concern for the educators that serve them and, in some instances, the students themselves. Recent data would indicate that 80% of American undergraduates worked while attending college in 1999-2000 (King, 2003).This represents an 8% increase over the class less than a decade previously, among whom 72% worked (Cuccaro-Alamin & Choy, 1998). Further, there appears to be a strong body of literature that points to the positive effects of not working versus working while attending college (King, 2002; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Local literatures Veronica V. Rillorta (2008) also published an article regarding working students entitled â€Å"Youngblood Working Student†. She is a high school honor student but was unable to go to college because of their poverty. She worked as waitress and saleslady but stopped due to some problems. It was stated that she was recommended by her high school batch mate as a working student ad she had her chance to continue college. It is hard for her but it is her opportunity to continue her faded dreams, she had manage to balanced work and study and now she is taking up computer secretarial course at the Vizcaya Institute of Computer Science in Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya. An article written by a Filipino anonymous blogger wrote an article entitled â€Å"A student’s sacrifice†. The used name of the blogger is Lostsoul. In her article, it was testified that being a working student requires sacrifice to achieve your aspirations. She said that you might even sacrifice your family, boyfriend/girlfriend, friends, and your social life. She stated that when you’re a working student, you always need to manage time and sometimes  you even forget to eat and take care of yourself because of your stresses and depressions as a student. You might also forget about your health but you need to give up something to be successful someday. An article reported by Bernadette Sembrano of ABS-CBN News, entitled â€Å"Only half of working students finish college.† (2010). It was affirmed that about 216,000 students in the country are currently juggling school and work, according to latest data from the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). The figure is about 8% of the total number of college students in the country. CHED said working students today are mostly into food service, entertainment and sales, apart from their usual stints as library and research assistants. Lawyer Julito Vitriolo, officer-in-charge at CHED’s office of the executive director stated that â€Å"They need extra income because of the financial crisis.† Vitriolo added that the students are forced to work because of higher commodity prices and tuition fees. The CHED said that only 50% of the working students get to finish college, because not that many can cope up with the hard situation of being a working student, getting stuck up between work and studies. 2.2REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES Foreign Studies A new study conducted by the researchers of the University of Washington, the Temple University and the University of Virginia,states that high school students who work for more than 20 hours in a week can face behavioural and academic problems. Samples of about 1,800 10th and 11th graders were compared for the study. Analysis was made by comparing the students who got the jobs to those who did not get the job and students who left their jobs to teens who continued working. Advanced statistical methods were used to match the teens on the basis of their personality and background. The researchers noticed that teens who worked for more than 20 hours in a week showed a decline in school engagement and increase in the behavioural problems. They even resorted to substance abuse, stealing, possessing guns etc. Things did not change for the better even when these teen cut back on their working hours or left the job all together. On the contrary, students  working for less than 20 hours a week did not face such psychological, academic or behavioural problems. Kathryn C. Monahan, research scientist at the University of Washington and the lead researcher of this study, suggests that parents, policymakers and educators should monitor the number of working hours of the students. The study is published in the journal, Child Development. Jonathan M. Orszag, Peter R. Orszag, and Diane M. Whitmore (August 2001) entitled â€Å"Learning and Earning: Working in College†. They revealed how many students are working and how their population increased yearly. Their study encompasses the different effects between full-time and part-time working students; they also focused on the effects of being a working student on the skills and performance of the student. The researchers aim to conduct their research for it to lead further studies regarding other ways of financing college students without affecting their acedemical performances. A study conducted by Veronica Gonzales, entitled â€Å"The experience of working class students at a Research I University†. She separated two distinctive class categories, the middle class, and the working class. She studied the difference of each other in areas including financing college, as well as other differences based on student’s high school experiences, including reading and writing skills, student-faculty-interaction, and time management. Local Studies These studies are related to this because it will lead to further results and conclusions regarding the problems encountered by working students. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY The present chapter is used to illustrate how the researchers identified the problems of working students in Palawan State University during the school year 2012-2013, with the purpose of letting the readers know the methodology utilized in the elaboration of the studies. 3.1PARTICIPANTS The participants for this study were 30 working students enrolled in Palawan State University (PSU). The 30 participants in this study were from three different departments of PSU, 10 participants were from the College of Mechanical Engineering, 10 participants from the College of Petroleum Engineering, and 10 participants from the College of Business and Accountancy. 3.2 MATERIALS The researchers executed a questionnaire to be distributed to the participants. The questionnaires contained questions regarding the information and data about the participants; state of the participant as a working student; the difficulties and problems the participants are facing as a working student and questions that answer the statement of the problem of this study. The questionnaire consisted of three parts. The first part included questions about the demographic profile of the respondents, the second part contained questions on which the information and data about the respondents as a working student will be gathered and the third part consisted questions which will be answered by number with different level of extent like 1- I certainly agree, 2- I agree, 3- Not sure, 4- I disagree, and 5- I certainly disagree. REFERENCES http://www.equisearch.com/horses_riding_training/english/working_students_120909/ http://www.slideshare.net/mcgreevy/working-students-face-tough-challenges http://ygoy.com/2011/02/05/students-working-more-than-20-hours-face-academic-and-behavioral-problems/ http://www.brockport.edu/career01/upromise.htm http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view/20080401-127563/Working-student http://www.stonybrook.edu/workingclass/publications/VGonzalez09.pdf http://definitelyfilipino.com/blog/2011/11/09/working-student-a-students-sacr

BSc (Hons) Computing & Web Technologies Coursework

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Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 6

Finance - Essay Example Cree: This is a company that makes energy efficient lighting products, such as LED diodes and compact fluorescent light bulbs. Analysts gave the stock a consensus buy rating and a fair value of 85.00 per share. At the time the initial purchase was made, the shares were down in value because of investor fears of a cyclical downturn in the semiconductor industry, and because the inventory of flat panel TVs and computer monitors is high. However, analysts pointed out that less than 12% of those products use Cree diodes, and say that if that segment of the business went completely away, it would impact earnings per share by less than 10 cents. Since the company reported earnings per share of 1.45, it would remain solidly profitable if this happened. Because most of the pressure is based on investor worries rather than on company or industry performance, the stock could be positioned to outperform, and is a good investment for that reason, since it is so solidly profitable. Pilgrims Pride Corporation: This company operates chicken processing plants and prepared food processing plants in 12 states of the Unites States. 64% of its holding lies with JBS, a huge Brazilian meat processing company, but the market for the minority shares is very active. Analysts have a hold rating on the stock, which currently sells for about 12.00 per share, and do not assign it a fair value. Analysts are concerned that the company might be planning to expand too rapidly. Chicken prices increased over 23% last year. The company plans to open three more plants this year, and there are some worries that this could cause prices to go back down. However, they believe that if the economy continues to improve, even at the modest level it is improving now, the price of chicken will go up even if these plants are opened. The other concerns involve a high debt level, and the fact that JBS put in all new management,

Child Labor Issues Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Child Labor Issues - Research Paper Example Increasingly, there are reports of children working in unsafe and unhealthy conditions for low wages in the global South in the production of both domestic goods and goods for Western businesses (Hart, 2008). Although child labor is typically associated with poverty and is more pervasive in developing countries, child labor is an issue globally (Dagdemir & Acaroglu, 2010). This research study analyzes the issue of child labor as well as identifies the political, cultural and economic factors that commonly contribute to the persistence of exploitive child labor. By identifying the common political, cultural and economic factors that contribute to the persistence of child labor, we can formulate recommendations for responding to those factors with a view to reducing, if not eliminating exploitive child labor. This research study is therefore divided into four main parts. The first part of this paper defines child labor,the international community’s, policies and laws regulating child labor. The second part of this paper identifies the persistence of child labor globally. The third part of this paper examines the key factors contributing to exploitive child labor. The final part of this paper makes recommendations for eliminating or at the very least reducing child labor. Contents Abstract 2 Contents 3 Introduction 4 Definition of Child Labor 5 International Regulation of Child Labor 6 Global Trends in Child Labor 9 Child Labor: Factors, Issues and Concerns 14 Conclusion and Recommendations 19 Recommendations 19 Conclusion 22 Introduction The most recent data in 2010 from the International Labor Organization(ILO) (2010) reveals that child labor is a major issue globally. There are approximately 215 million children characterised as child laborers globally with 306 million children characterized as employed (ILO, 2010). While the latest data reflects a reduction child labor since 2000, the numbers stalled as of 2006 and the number of child laboreres globally remains unacceptable (International Labor Organization, 2010). According to the International Labor Organization (2010), agriculture remains the sector most frequently associated with child labor with Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and West Asia identified as the most problematic areas. Increasingly children are working in unsafe conditions in agriculture in the production of global agricultural goods such as bananas, rubber, tobacco, cocoa, tea, coffee and cotton (International Labor Organization, 2010). Child labor in agriculture is not restricted to developing countries. For instance, a recent report claims that 9 percent of farm laborers in the US are children as young as 7 years old that work between 14 and 16 hours daily for a full seven-day work week and are paid well below the mandated minimum wage (Adame, 2010). Aside from agriculture, Western retail companies have increasingly become complicit in the exploitation of child labor in their supply chains where child labor is reportedly used in â€Å"low-cost† countries in the production of goods distributed globally (Weele, 2010, p. 55). For instance, Nike was condemned by the Western press for the use of child laborers who worked in Pakistan in the sewing of soccer balls for Nike (Heal, 2008). This research study analyzes the issue of child labour globally and identifies the political, economic and cultural aspects of child labour. In identifying the common political, econom

Write a response to the article Modern Stone Age Humans incorporating Essay - 1

Write a response to the article Modern Stone Age Humans incorporating one quotation from artcile - Essay Example Of all the different sorts of theories that I have read explaining the possible reasons or meanings of these paintings, one that I find the most interesting and believable is â€Å"boot-camp training prior to full-fledged military service and training camp prior to sports season†. I think that these paintings might be used by trained and experienced hunters to train the children and young and inexperienced hunters. Many of these paintings show the different sorts of livestock and cattle with spears. I particularly think so because there is a painting of a black deer that is being targeted and shot at by three hunters from different positions. Another significance of these paintings could be material for teaching. It is mentioned in the reading that â€Å"some of the animals in the cave murals are pregnant, and some are copulating† As some of these paintings also show the animals procreating, the paintings might be used as images for teaching how different species

Motivation and job satisfaction Literature review

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Scope statement( course)- project management( major) Assignment

Scope statement( course)- project management( major) - Assignment Example One of these will be noted to be constraints. Most of the time project managers fail to accept from the onset that there could be constraints, which can militate against the success of the project. Consequently, most of these constraints come to them much unprepared, making it difficult to use any continuous process method to address them (Jacob, Bergland & Cox 89). There have been times that the scope statement has worked particularly well and other times that they have not worked so well. In a personal experience, there was a time that the scope statement did not work well because the stakeholders who were to put their efforts together to make the project a successful one failed to play their roles adequately. Consequently, the project manager had to take care of everything, which became problematic because the scope that was used to finish the project seemed to be different from the expectation of project owners when the project was completed. The use of requirements documents and work breakdown structure has however proven to give good support to scope statements in ensuring that they work

Technology and Jobs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Technology and Jobs - Essay Example the newly introduced electronic typesetting equipment swallowed around 4200 type setters in New York but created new job opportunities for the people who can operate the new type setting equipment. In 1920s American railway employed more than 2, 00,000 people and the number was reduced to only for 40 thousands because of advanced technology. Between 1947 and 1957 there were 10 thousands of workers in oil refineries of America. After 1957 though the production was increased the number of workers was reduced by three percent. However, there is a simultaneous increase in job opportunities for the people who can work with the advanced technology. In automobile division, robots replaced man power, but the people who could operate the robots could retain their jobs. Electronic mails, E-banking and computerization definitely cause the reduction of jobs. One cannot run away from the modern technology to save the jobs, but should use the technological developments to increase the business as well as the employment opportunities. In the case of reduction of jobs and retrenchment, the role of state can find legality in maintaining the retention as providing employment is part of the duties of the government. If the government confines itself to the regulatory function, one cannot find legality in saving the jobs. However, the legality for saving the jobs comes from the fact when government realises that providing or creating employment is a responsibility of the government. The legality can be maintained by continuing with public investment projects thus intensifying public sector employment programmes by adapting industrial financing to the companies who retain the employees in the wake of technological developments. 1 The changes in technology can be termed as a boon for the people who could adopt themselves to the new system. However, it is a curse for the workers who failed to improve their skills. So it’s the prime responsibility of the Federal and the local

Intellectual Challenge Essay Example for Free

Intellectual Challenge Essay The intellectual property rights for WiMAX technology were distributed throughout the industry found that no single company is in a dominant patent ownership position. The forum’s study was conducted by IPR law firm Schwegman, Lundberg, Woessner and Kluth, and found that there are about 1550 WiMAX-related patents whose ownership is distributed among about 330 companies. Samsung owns close to 20% of those patents, but no other company has a larger percentage than that. Also, of the 23 companies that own more than 10 patents, 74% are WiMAX Forum members. â€Å"There is a dispersed distribution of patents,† Resnick said. â€Å"We are promoting the practice of charging very low royalties for WiMAX, unlike what has happened with some 3G technologies. What this shows is that the WiMAX market will be a safe haven for royalties in the future. †(O’Shea, 2006). To provide affordable voice and data connectivity to buildings with no wired connections (Alvarion, 2006). Building on this success, Alvarion will be deploying WiMAX networks worldwide to provide voice and data services in both rural and urban areas. But the ultimate promise of WiMAX will be when it is built into laptops and handsets the way Wi-Fi exists today. Then users will need only one connection for their laptops making broadband access simpler and more cost effective. (Alvarion, 2006) The availability of two, mutually incompatible, versions of WiMAX creates a challenge for everybody in the industry, trying to understand how they will fare in the market, which one will dominate in the long term and which services they will support. 802. 16-2004 WiMAX only supports fixed access, but products are already available. 802. 16e WiMAX supports mobile and fixed access but products are still at least a year away. The report addresses these issues and provides an extensive overview of WiMAX technology, competing technologies, regulation, and business models. It gives a very detailed forecast of subscribers, service revenues and equipment revenues for 15 countries, 6 regions and for the worldwide market. Demand for broadband services is exploding, but both service providers and residential end-users demand very low cost CPE (in the $100 range) to adopt WiMAX extensively. So far, the demand for broadband wireless services has been mainly driven by high-end corporate and government users. Further, many of the cash-rich operators we interviewed said that they prefer not to commit to large network deployments until the mobile WiMAX version becomes widely available. These service providers, which include both current and prospective license holders, view 802. 16e as the best choice for both fixed and mobile applications. The next two years will be key for WiMAX adoption in the country. (Prado Fellah, 2006) Wimax Facts and Security Issue Multiple security mechanisms protect operator, residential customer and enterprise privacy. Weatherized enclosure allows collocation on rooftops – limiting physical access. Advanced encryption protects over-the-air transmission. It has Password protection of all remote management methods. (Winncom Technologies, 2005) The designers of WiMAX were aware of inherent security issues found in Wi-Fi. And as a result greater security functionality was built into the base of the 802. 16 standard. The current 802. 16-2004 (fixed WiMAX) standard specifies using a key management protocol, which adheres to server/client architecture and uses the X. 509 digital certificates to authenticate subscriber stations (SS). (Usekas, 2006) Segment Segregation a wireless network should be treated as having a higher security risk than an internal physical network. It is always a good idea to separate the wireless network from sensitive resources. System administrators should police all traffic passing between a wireless segment and the rest of the network. Figure 1 illustrates a wireless segment separated from the rest of the network by a firewall. In this case firewall is a logical concept and can mean just another Ethernet port on your existing firewall. The advantage of segment separation rests in being able to control the traffic flow to and from a wireless segment by applying policies to the firewall. For example, if all you want is to allow wireless users to browse the web and access your intranet web server, then you can specify rules to that effect ensuring that no other type of traffic will traverse the firewall, and cause a problem in the internal network. (Wimax. com Broadband Solutions, Inc. 2005) In addition most enterprise level firewalls support†per policy authentication methods. This allows system administrators to configure policies preventing traffic outside of clearly defined policies until they authenticate using HTTP, TELNET or FTP protocols, thus adding another authentication layer to the security. User databases can either be maintained locally on the device, or by using selected firewalls, which support the use of existing RADIUS or TACACS+ servers. It is possible to go one step further and integrate per policy authentication with two factor authentication technologies like RSA SecurIDA‚A ®, which provides physical tokens with rotating security PINs. These do provide a much more secure user authentication system than reusable passwords. Provisions for helping to ensure the integrity of user data traffic and control messaging are essential for wide scale system deployment. Security and cryptographic suite support specified in the WiMAX Forum Mobile System Profile represents the latest in state of the art security. Encryption of user data traffic is expected to be based on AES in CCM mode. Management message integrity protection is expected to be based on cipher-based MAC (CMAC). (Intel, 2006)

Waste minimising and recycle in construction

Waste minimising and recycle in construction INTRODUCTION: The construction industry has a major impact on the environment, both in terms of the resources it consumes and the waste it produces. The construction industry is responsible for producing a whole variety of different wastes, the amount and type of which depends on factors such as the stage of construction, type of construction work and practices on site. The construction industry generates a large amount of waste every year. As construction professionals we should follow a hierarchical approach to waste management by aiming primarily to reduce the amount of waste produced then aim to reuse and recycle any waste that is produced. Whilst the trend is to reject the traditional methods of waste disposal in favour of sustainable waste strategies, the majority of the construction industry has placed waste reduction at the bottom of research agendas because of complexities over reuse and recycling. Construction waste has a significant impact on the environment and more emphasis must be put on reducing waste production and increasing recycling and reuse. WASTE Sustainable waste management means using material resources efficiently; to cut down on the amount of waste we produce, and where waste is produced, dealing with it in a way that actively contributes to the economic, social and environmental goals of sustainable development.[1] SOURCES OF WASTE CLIENT ROLE: The client plays an important role in the reduction of waste. This is for a reason that when the client changes his requirements at a stage when construction has already began, the materials which are already being used would be wasted as they no longer will be used in the new design. IMPORTANCE OF SKILLED LABOUR: The use of skilled labours means that good techniques will be used and hopefully fewer mistakes will occur during the construction phase. A mistake could lead to the need for replacement of materials. Thereby increasing the amount of waste generated. LOGISTICS OF MATERIALS: The logistics of materials to the site can also play a part in reducing the waste; this is for a number of reasons. Packaging of material will create waste. Therefore, if a method is generated to reduce the amount of packaging then the waste will be reduced. AFFECTS OF TRANSPORTATION OF MATERIALS: Waste will also be generated due to the transportation of the product. While transporting, goods can be damaged due to the vehicular movements if proper care is not taken and hence get wasted. Delivering goods in large quantities could generate problems at the site as more storage may be required which may need temporary structures or heating to keep the products in the right conditions, this adding to the amount of waste generated. MANUFACTURING DEFECTS: During manufacturing, the manufacturer produces only a specific size, but the client may require a slightly different size, therefore the material is trimmed down on site. This creates a large amount of wastage. Also a poor manufacturer may produce a number of low quality products that cant be used. SITE MANAGEMENT: Site management could also be a factor that courses waste. Time management and storage of material on site could course waste if the site management is not as good as it should be. If materials are not used within a limited time period or if when they are not stored properly, its properties might change and therefore may not be suitable for the project. An example of this is if concrete arrives on site and is forced to wait for the site to be ready, then the concrete might start to set and therefore cant be used. TYPES OF WASTE There are two main types of waste in the construction industry, this include solid waste (which may be recycled or taken to landfill) or gasses waste which may be a pollutant. Gaseous waste will be generated from a number of different sources. In the construction process a large amount of plant and heavy machinery will be used. Most of this machinery will be driven by diesel engines which will generate exhaust gases, these gases will be a waste product generated in the contraction process. Waste gasses can also indirectly be generated due to the construction industry, gasses may be produced in the fabrication and manufacturing of different products that are used. Solid waste can also be split into sections, waste that can be recycled or re-used and waste which will be put into landfill. There are a large number of different waste products that could be generated from the construction industries such as, timber, metals, concrete and more serious waste, which may be harder to recycle and reuse. These wastes include plastics, plaster boards and asbestos. How much Waste does the Construction Industry Produce? Construction and demolition (CD) waste includes brick, concrete, hardcore, subsoil and topsoil, but it can also contain quantities of timber, metal, plastics and occasionally special (hazardous) waste materials. Wastes occur from the construction, repair, maintenance and demolition of buildings and structures. The Construction Industry Research and Information Association (CIRIA) have reported that an estimated 72.5 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste are produced annually. This is around 17.5 % of the total waste produced in the U.K. Furthermore, 13 million tonnes of construction materials are delivered to sites in the U.K. and thrown away unused every year. This is not sustainable.[3] EFFECTS OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE ON THE ENVIRONMENT The two main types of waste generated by the construction industry are solid wastes and gaseous wastes. Liquid wastes may also be generated during construction processes, such as cleaning, but the effect of such wastes is minimal and generally local to a particular site. Gaseous waste is a sub-product from the use of machinery in the construction process, transportation of materials and from the production of construction materials. This type of waste is emitted to the air and has inherent effects on air quality. Solid waste can be generated from demolition and excavation or may be unused material from the construction process. Some solid waste may be recycled or reused however the majority is put into landfill sites, because of this the overarching target of the UK governments strategy for sustainable construction is to reduce the amount of construction waste to landfill by 50% by 20121. Solid waste therefore adopts the associated effects on the environment that landfill has. Of the solid waste that is put into landfill the majority comes from the demolition of existing structures and the excavation of material to allow construction, however a relatively small proportion consists of unused materials generated from amongst others, design change, lack of skilled workforce, site untidiness, poor quality materials and manufacture and lack of product information and knowledge. Unused materials will not only contribute to the environmental effects of landfill but will have indirect environmental effects due to transportation, production and packaging. The main environmental effects of waste due to demolition and excavation are emissions from transportation and primarily issues with landfill. Landfills are widely considered to have adverse effects on the surrounding environment and public health. The main types of environmental impacts caused by landfill sites are alteration to surrounding landscape, visual intrusion, degradation of air quality, pollution of ground water and degradation of soil quality. The construction industry makes a considerable contribution as it makes up a large proportion of the total waste assigned to landfill in the UK. Landfill sites generally occupy a large area required for waste disposal itself as well as associated facilities and enough area to minimise the effects on surrounding groundwater and soil quality. Additionally in some cases excavation and movement of material is required to create an area which is suitable for the disposal of waste. Thus, the surrounding landscape is adversely affected. The location of a landfill site is often sensibly chosen so to minimise the effects it has on the surrounding environment, however it may be impossible to locate it so that it is entirely invisible to the public and the negative visual impact a landfill site will have on a community cannot be avoided. Gaseous emissions from a landfill site come from the transportation of waste, use of machinery and more importantly the anaerobic digestion of organic matter producing methane. Generation of gas in a landfill site is one of the largest sources of methane emissions to the atmosphere; methane having a muc h greater global warming effect than carbon dioxide as well as being harmful to humans. Landfill sites therefore have a negative effect on air quality and public health. The precipitation that falls on a landfill coupled with the disposal of liquid wastes results in the extraction of water soluble compounds and particulate material, such as cement, dust and asbestos. Although nowadays measures are generally taken to water-proof a landfill site resulting solutions and mixtures will almost certainly end up in surrounding groundwater and soil. Thus, a degradation of groundwater and soil quality occurs. Gaseous wastes are a by-product of any development but have increased severity in large scale developments which require a large amount of material and associated transportation, use of a greater amount and varying machinery and occur over a longer timescale. Transportation of materials will usually be by road, rail or occasionally by sea. In any case the method of transportation will produce gaseous emissions that will have an overall global warming effect and reduce the air quality locally and regionally. An increased local reduction in air quality occurs in areas around large developments with longer construction times due to the prolonged constant use of machinery in the same area. The production of construction materials also has a significant effect on air quality due to emissions of particularly damaging waste products from industrial plants. WASTE MINIMISATION: Definition of waste minimisation: The reduction of waste at source, by understanding and changing processes to reduce and prevent waste. This is also known as process or resource efficiency. Waste minimisation includes the substitution of less environmentally harmful materials in the production process.[4] Designing out waste at the initial stages of the construction process provides the greatest opportunities for waste minimisation. The best way to manage waste, particularly hazardous waste, is to manage the process so that there is no waste to manage. This is definitely not easy, but the whole aim is that when a similar thought occurs, waste can be minimised if not eliminated. Benefits of Waste Minimisation: * Increase resource efficiency * Reduce costs * Improve environmental performance * Demonstrate best practice * Ensure compliance with legal obligations * Reduce disposal to landfill * economic incentives * social advantages * internal business benefits * external business benefits Waste minimisation contributes to the increase efficiency in the utilisation of resources. It also helps in reduction of cost of overall project, when the expenditure over the waste is reduced; thereby the cost of project also reduces. Waste Minimisation understandsenvironmental improvementssuch as ameliorated pollution control, development of environmentally friendly products Waste Minimisation ensureslegal compliancewith European Directives, UK Legislation and Regulations. Waste minimisation will considerably reduce the disposal to landfill, thereby reducing the landfill tax. Waste Minimisation haseconomic incentivessuch as diluted trade waste costs and better efficiency. It is important that any industry regards in implementing the waste minimisation initiatives because the introduction of the landfill tax means that waste disposal costs are set to increase in the future. Waste Minimisation hassocial benefitsas the recycling and reuse methods allow employment and economic opportunities for local charities, voluntary groups, the community sector and businesses that can reuse or recycle materials. Waste Minimisation hasinternal business benefitsby promoting a cultural change within any industry by nurturing environmental awareness. It also provides an opportunity for staff training and qualifications as well as improved employee motivation. Waste Minimisation hasexternal business benefitsby managing a variety of your businesses stakeholder relationships. Industrys investors, customers, the general public, the regulator, companies within your supply chain and contractors may require evidence of good environmental performance or look for a green image. [5] How to achieve the benefits: Waste minimisation demands action on three fronts: 1. People: Many reductions in waste can be accomplished through improved housekeeping. It is crucial that employees are aware of the issues related to waste and are motivated and trained to prevent it. 2. Methodology: A systematic approach to measurement and control foregrounds deficiencies and problems, alters targets to be set and maintains levels of efficiency. 3. Technology: Capital investment in new technology can enhance productivity and decrease waste generation, giving very short paybacks. METHODS OF WASTE MINIMISATION The process of waste minimisation through Designing out Waste is still at the early stage of development. Many barriers and opportunities exist in developing waste minimisation strategies in design. If this process is considered in the early stages of construction activities, there are opportunities for it to exist. The waste hierarchy (see figure 1) establishes waste reduction as one of the highest priorities for addressing the increasing volumes of waste. The target for any waste reduction strategy must be to focus on opportunities from the outset, at the earliest stages of design. Many barriers and opportunities exist in developing a strategy of waste reduction in design. Opportunities for waste minimisation exist in four construction areas: 1. Project Planning 2. Pre-Construction 3. Off-Site Activities 4. On-Site Activities PROJECT PLANNING: During project planning phase, it is essential that waste management strategy is made for better profit margins. Focus on elimination of waste is the prime factor. Communicating strategies with client, developer, designer, builder, project manager, contractors and suppliers is very important. Analysis on waste reduction plan should be done. PRE CONSTRUCTION: This stage involves three areas where waste reduction is possible. * Designing: proper and accurate dimensions, proposing standard material sizes, building for deconstruction (can be easily reused if future modifications occur with ease and minimum wastage) and operational waste reduction. * Estimating: over estimation of required materials leads to wastage. * Purchasing: Buying environmental friendly items, using procurement policy as specifying manufacturers and suppliers your exact requirements reduces the amount of waste. OFF-SITE ACTIVITIES:  · Prefabrication: By prefabricating frames and trusses, timber waste can be decreased to an extent. ON-SITE ACTIVITIES: * Delivery and storage of materials. * Packaging * Separation of materials. * Safe disposal of unavoidable waste. WASTE MINIMISATION STRATEGIES Managing and monitoring the different waste streams on a construction site requires a detailed waste minimisation strategy. This needs careful planning throughout the design, build and occupancy phases, to ensure its success, effectiveness and compliance with building regulations. There are three basic strategies for dealing with waste: reduce, reuse and recycle. Waste prevention is the ideal, and this can be addressed first by identifying possible waste streams early on in the build process, and then designing for their minimisation. Using standard sizes for building components (windows, doors etc.) can prevent future waste, as can design for deconstruction, using recyclable components. It has been estimated that over ordering accounts for 13 million tonnes of new building materials being thrown out every year. Better communication between building professionals to ensure exact calculations of required materials are made can mean that this waste is prevented. Just-in-time delivery strategies can further reduce waste created by improper storage and weather damage. Once waste has been produced, the best method of managing it is through reuse either on the existing site, or a nearby site. Many materials can be usefully reclaimed, and even sold to offset the costs of a building project. Recycling materials is the final option for managing waste. Materials that can be reused or recycled need to be identified early on the build process, and segregated for easy storage, collection and transfer. For the strategy to be effective, links also need to be established with local recycling and reuse facilities and contractors. [6] OCCUPANCY WASTE Sustainable building practice goes one step further than conventional practice, by designing for waste minimisation in the operation of the building, through grey water recycling, composting toilets, on site food composting and off-site recycling facilities, thus helping to reduce residential waste. [7] LEGISLATIVE ASPECTS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT: LANDFILL TAX The landfill tax aims to encourage waste producers to produce less waste, recover more value from waste, through recycling or composting, and to use more environmentally friendly methods of waste disposal. The tax applies to active and inert waste, disposed of at a licensed landfill site. The aims of the landfill tax are: * To promote the polluter pays principle, by increasing the price of landfill to better reflect its environmental costs; * To promote a more sustainable approach to waste management in which less waste is produced and more is recovered or recycled. There are two rates of tax. Inactive waste is subject to the lower rate at  £2 per tonne. Active waste is subject to  £15 per tonne, rising at  £3 per tonne per year from 2005/06 towards a long-term rate of  £35 per tonne. Her Majestys Customs and Excise has updated its General Note on the Landfill Tax. The guidance replaces the previous version (February 2000) to include the changes to the tax liability of materials re-used on landfill sites; permits issued under regulations under section 2 of the Pollution Prevention and Control Act (1999) that authorise deposits or disposals in, or on the land; the changes to the liability to pay landfill tax and changes to the Landfill Tax Credit Scheme. The Landfill Tax Regulations have been clarified following a legal challenge brought by a waste management company last year. [8] SITE WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANS (SWMPS) Site Waste Management Plans (SWMPs) are an important tool for construction companies and their clients, of all sizes, to improve their environmental performance, meet regulatory controls and reduce rising costs of disposing of waste. This document sets out the basic structure of SWMPs and how companies can best use them to improve and manage their operations at all stages of site activity. It includes useful checklists and other guidance to help ensure the Plan is a practical tool. Note that it is not essential for there to be a separate SWMP document for your site the guidance given here can equally well be included in a Waste Management Section of an overall Site Environmental Management Plan.[9] THE PURPOSE OF SWMPS: SWMPs aim to address two key issues: 1. Improving materials resource efficiency, by promoting the economic use of construction materials and methods so that waste is minimised and any waste that is produced can be re-used, recycled or recovered in other ways before disposal options are explored; and 2. Reducing fly-tipping, by restricting the opportunities available for the illegal disposal of waste by ensuring compliance with existing legal controls and providing a full audit trail of any waste that is removed from the construction site. Although it is a legal requirement to write and implement a SWMP, the greatest cost savings are likely to be achieved as a result of the consideration of materials resource efficiency which will be a necessary part of the preparation, before the SWMP is drafted. [10] WASTE AS A VALUABLE RESOURCE Effective waste management can reduce building and operating costs, enhance the reputation of the building industry, and also generate new revenue streams through developing recycling and reclaiming markets. Reducing construction waste also saves landfill space, conserves valuable natural resources, saves energy and creates less pollution by reducing transportation and manufacturing processes, with a mitigating effect on climate change. CONCLUSION: According to the ODPM waste survey (2001), the CD industry in Wales produces around 5.02 million tonnes of waste per year; this is around 30% of all controlled waste arising in Wales. Given the scale of the construction industry in Wales and the quantity of waste produced, it has great potential to lead the way in waste minimisation, re-use and recycling.[11] Waste minimisation is now an instituted business practice for many organisations and a number of industries have enforced waste reduction programmes. Reducing waste is a key to a cleaner world and more competitive industry. It would not be fair to conclude that building services should undergo revolutionary redesign or standardisation just to reduce wastes in construction. However, the reduction of waste, in terms of materials or time is beneficial to all because a reduction in cost will result in better systems within the same budget. [1] CIOB. ().Sustainability and Construction.Available: www.ciob.org.uk/filegrab/sustainability.pdf?ref=74. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [2] CIBSE. ().DESIGNING TO ENCOURAGE WASTE MINIMISATION IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY.Available: http://www.cibse.org/pdfs/Construction%20waste%20minim.pdf. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [3] CIOB. ().Sustainability and Construction.Available: www.ciob.org.uk/filegrab/sustainability.pdf?ref=74. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [4] Welsh Assembly Government. ().Waste prevention and minimisation.Available: http://new.wales.gov.uk/topics/environmentcountryside/epq/waste_recycling/Waste_prevention_minimisation?lang=en. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [5] Perth Kinross Council . (2008).Benefits of waste minimisation.Available: http://www.pkc.gov.uk/Planning+and+the+environment/Waste+and+recycling/Commercial+waste/Waste+minimisation+for+business/Benefits+of+waste+minimisation.htm. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [6] Sustainable Build. ().Reducing and Managing Waste.Available: http://www.sustainablebuild.co.uk/ReducingManagingWaste.html. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [7] Sustainable Build. ().Reducing and Managing Waste.Available: http://www.sustainablebuild.co.uk/ReducingManagingWaste.html. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [8] Welsh Assembly Government. ().Landfill tax.Available: http://wales.gov.uk/topics/environmentcountryside/epq/waste_recycling/landfilltax/?lang=en. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [9] dti. (2004).SITE WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANS.Available: http://www.wrap.org.uk/downloads/site_waste_management_plan.b230bcd7.2323.pdf. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [10] defra. (2008).Non-statutory guidance for site waste management plans.Available: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/topics/construction/pdf/swmp-guidance.pdf. Last accessed 6 December 2009. [11] Welsh Assembly Government. ().Construction and Demolition.Available: http://wales.gov.uk/topics/environmentcountryside/epq/waste_recycling/construction_demolition/?lang=en. Last accessed 6 December 2009.